The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic has ushered in some particularly troubling times for Black women. In addition to the fact that they are dying of COVID-19 at higher rates than White men (Preidt, 2021), the year 2020 saw a 50 percent increase over 2019 in the number of Black women killed by guns. For comparison’s sake, there was a 39.5 percent increase in gun-related deaths among Blacks overall during the same time period (Rabin, 2022, p. A2). At the same time, according to data from Philadelphia, drug overdose deaths among Blacks rose by more than 50 percent during the pandemic. Among whites, it remained steady or fell (Mann, 2021).
Furthermore, according to Treasury Secretary Janet Yellen, the potential overturning of Roe v. Wade would cause the greatest harm to Black women. An abortion ban, Yellen said, “‘deprives [women] of the ability to continue their education,’ and those most affected are most commonly young Black women” (Hussein, 2022, p. A4). One way to counter these headwinds is to provide an educational system that will empower Black women in their pursuit of STEM degrees and jobs.
STEM, STEMM, and STEAM
For the purposes of this chapter, the acronyms STEM, STEMM, and STEAM shall all refer to some combination of science, technology, engineering, math, medicine, and, on occasion, the arts in terms of academic and vocational pursuits.
Both pragmatic and philosophical reasons exist for securing more Black women in STEM fields. At a practical level, the United States is not producing and retaining “a sufficient number of STEM-related workers, researchers, and technicians” (Kozan, 2017, p. 206) and lags behind many other countries in the percentage of bachelor’s degrees awarded in STEM fields (Perna, et al., 2009, p. 2; Rogers-Chapman, 2014).
Given this situation, some researchers warn that the standard of living in the United States is literally at stake if the country’s education system fails to “ensure competency and competitiveness in the sciences” (Adams et al., 2017, p. 9). Lehman (2013) agrees, stating STEM employment is “essential for America’s economic development and ability to compete internationally” (quoted in Alexander & Hermann, 2016, p. 308). Perez-Felkner (2019) adds that there is an “overall consensus on the importance of STEM fields to the nation’s success, including its military, labor force, and capacity for innovation” (p. 12).” In other words, any shortage of STEM workers creates an existential threat to our way of living. However, if the number of women of color who entered STEM programs were retained in the STEM workforce, the shortage of STEM workers in the United States might be resolved (Alexander & Hermann, 2016, p. 307).
A Remunerative Career
Even if the threat to the nation is overstated, a STEM degree can provide a remunerative career for individuals. To begin with, growth in science and engineering jobs will outpace job growth in other fields (Perna et al., 2009; Yarbrough, 2016). For that reason, one “key to opportunity for many students is the acquisition of skills in science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM)” (Kozan, 2017, p. 206). Among the STEM fields, computer science and engineering provide “the highest economic returns to education” (Perez-Felkner, 2019, p. 11). Therefore, recruiting and retaining students from disadvantaged backgrounds for careers in STEM can put them on the path to the middle class or higher.
Since Black women face a very high risk of being stuck in poverty (62 percent), surpassing even the 50 percent risk faced by Black men (Win‐ ship et al., 2018), creating programs to reinforce Black girls in STEM can significantly help their chances of rising above poverty. Additionally, simply having knowledge of STEM disciplines can impact personal choices regarding health care, diet, and fitness, meaning that a population familiar with concepts taught within STEM classes should be healthier (Yarbrough, 2016).
Equalizing Success for Young Black Women
Philosophically speaking, equity and fairness require us to level the playing field so everyone has an equal chance at success. The underrepresentation of women, underrepresented minorities (URM), students living in poverty, English learners, and students with disabilities in STEM fields is well documented (Yarbrough, 2016). Young black women face inter-woven barriers both as women and as persons of color. Although more women than men are enrolled in tertiary education globally, there is still a gap in STEM. The World Economic Forum reports that “around 26% of jobs in the technology sector are carried out by women” (cited in Garcia-Holgado, 2020, p. 1824).
Women in STEM
Unfortunately, the number of women earning degrees in some STEM fields actually dropped in the not-too-distant past, with a decrease by 4 percent in statistics and by 14 percent in computer science between 1993 and 2009 (Alexander & Hermann, 2016, p. 308). Regarding women of color, Farinde and Lewis (2012) reported that they are “significantly absent in STEM professions” (p. 421). While it is nice to think that Americans live in a post-racial society, a “color-blind perspective perpetuates the myth of meritocracy that claims individuals are ultimately responsible for their own successes without considering the many factors and experiences associated with inequalities of racial background, social class, and White privilege that affect the likelihood of success” (Collins, 2018, p. 150).
To be sure, existing programs to help URM have shown some success. For example, the percentage of bachelor’s degrees in science and engineering earned by URM students, according to the National Science Foundation rose from 10 percent in 1989 to 21 percent in 2010. In addition, their share of earned doctorates rose from 4 percent to nearly 11 percent during the same period (cited in Garrison, 2013, p. 363). Unfortunately, at this pace, it will take decades to eliminate the remaining disparities. Furthermore, the relative gains have slowed since 2000 (Garrison, 2013, p. 363). Given these circumstances, Ford (2013) avows that Black females “have unique traits, needs, and threats that warrant individual attention (cited in Collins, 2018, p. 159).
Supporting Black Women
One way to support Black females is to encourage superintendents to create programs that will see Black females succeed in science, technology, engineering, and math throughout their academic and professional careers. We see STEM as a social justice issue around which superintendents can focus an entire district.
I approach the question of equal opportunity for STEM advancement from a liberal individualist view outlined by Hytten and Bettez (2011). As one philosophical approach to social justice, the liberal individualist view proposes that “each person is entitled to as much freedom as possible as long as others share the same freedom.” In addition, social goods should be distributed as equally as possible, “with inequities being allocated in a way that benefits the least privileged members of society” (p. 11). Stakeholders who champion a market-oriented philosophy would agree that we need to strive for equity, “which means providing the same resources opportunity, and treatment to each student” (Pitman, 1995, p. 12).
The Concept of Social Justice
Where liberal individualists and market-oriented persons would clearly disagree over the concept of social justice, which seeks to address and eliminate marginalization in school. While our approach favors a social justice perspective, we also hope to find common ground with free marketeers by embracing Maxwell, Locke, and Scheurich’s (2013) approach to education equity by the creation of educational policies, practices, and programs necessary to (a) eliminate educational barriers based on gender, race/ethnicity, national origin, color, disability, age, or other protected group status; and (b) provide equal educational opportunities and ensure that historically underserved or underrepresented populations meet the same rigorous standards for academic performance expected of all children and youth (p. 3).
As Cambron-McCabe and McCarthy (2005) have pointed out, laws alone will not alter racism. Social justice requires an emphasis on moral values, respect for diverse opinions, and a focus on equity—always keeping in the forefront “a consciousness about the impact of race, class, gender, sexual orientation, and disability on schools and students’ learning” (p. 201).
Building a STEM-Friendly Education System
Steward insists that efforts to increase STEM workers must start in elementary school. Consequently, a need exists for “a greater emphasis on math and science course work in elementary certification programs,” which have to provide elementary teachers the skills they require to infuse their classroom with real-world applications of technical education (Steward, 2013, p. 2). Adams, Robinson, Covington, and Talley-Matthews (2017) agree that elementary school teachers need more exposure to STEM, particularly in mathematics. In addition, communal learning environments in the early years supported by good technology can overcome barriers created by unequal starting points.
At the high school level, successful programs exist that can provide models for STEM-focused education. In Ohio, for example, a teacher-led school with experienced instructors creating carefully designed projects that focus on real-world problems helped engage urban high school students in STEM, as described by Beckett, et al. (2016).
Some researchers view school superintendents as the “key driving forces behind the technological development of American students” and “pivotal actors in the complex algorithm for managing districts and leading policy implementation efforts” (Biggs, 2013, p. 1; DeMatthews et al., 2017, p. 2), it is important to engage them in reform efforts to improve the academic environment for STEM, particularly for Black females. Along that line, Paben (2002) wrote that district superintendents need to understand how technology will support their vision to improve teacher efficacy as a way to raise student engagement and success (cited in Biggs, 2013, p. 3). Along those lines, such organizations as the Collaborative for Technology Standards for School Administrators have set criteria for PreK–12 educational leaders to guide them in what they “should know and be able to do with technology” (Biggs, 2013, p. 2).
Taking Advantage of Technology
In order to take advantage of technology in the classroom, two things must be present.
Working with School Boards
First, superintendents need to work with school boards, principals, and teachers to champion the infusion of technology and engineering concepts into schools, in other words, STEM integration. Steward (2013) noted that those school districts successfully implementing STEM education had developed ongoing development plans, not just relying on a single workshop or staff development day model. To accomplish this, STEM must be part of a district’s vision statement to the extent that connections to STEM and career and technical training must exist from one workshop or staff development activity to another and from one semester to another. Superintendents must be part of a national effort “to create a continuum of learning” about STEM that is clear for instructors and students at all levels (Steward, 2013). Once they are given guidance, building leaders (both administrators and teachers) can decide what they need in order to reach their STEM goals.
Knowing the Needs
Second, the superintendents need to figure out a district’s needs to fulfill its STEM vision and secure resources: human, financial, and political (Yarbrough, 2016). Because many teachers lack the necessary technological skills (Brown et al., 2021), district and school leaders should provide opportunities for teachers to gain efficacy in STEM implementation (Marksbury, 2017). According to Wisniewski (2010), while 65 percent of principals said they could create schedules so teachers could master technology skills, only 20 percent had done that (cited in Biggs, 2013, p. 3). Besides teachers, counselors can play an important role “in encouraging students of diverse backgrounds to pursue STEM courses” (Stipanovic & Woo, 2017, p. 192). Therefore, superintendents need to make sure that all students have access to appropriate career counseling.
Working with Teachers’ Unions
Superintendents also need to be willing to work with teachers’ unions to make sure necessary changes are not thwarted. If necessary, superintendents must be willing to “deal with some flack” in order to pursue their vision (Yarbrough, 2016). One way to more methodically integrate a STEM program is for a superintendent to work initially with only those principals who are most excited about the project (Yarbrough, 2016). Once success becomes obvious, then it will spill to other schools and other schools can be brought along.
Once the equipment is in place, district-wide programs must be implemented to engage all students in STEM concepts while taking into consideration the social injustices of the past. While acknowledging the fact that access may not look the same for everyone (Coleman, 2021), district leaders need to ensure that all student subgroups (based on race, gender, socio-economic status, language proficiency, and learning ability) have equal access to STEM initiatives provided by a school or district. According to Mitchell (2020, p. 4), “Of the many roles school superintendents play, equity-focused leadership is one that will impact their students, the communities in which they live, and the societies into which they will eventually enter and contrite, perhaps for generations” (cited in Pittman, 2021, p. 40).
Many of the studies of superintendents and equity involve non-STEM curricula such as foreign language and English language learners, but simply giving superintendents the wherewithal to engage in conversations about race proved to be “valuable experiences” when dealing with equity across the board (Pittman, 2021, p. 46). Given the past invisibility of Black girls within STEM disciplines, active steps must be taken to ensure that they are enticed/recruited into STEM programs in order to counter centuries of neglect (Coleman, 2021).
Integrating STEM in K-12
Finally, superintendents must determine how to evaluate the effectiveness of K–12 STEM integration initiatives (Yarbrough, 2016). As Lockett, Gasman, and Nguyen (2018) have pointed out, students are influenced to succeed not only by professors and peers but also by senior administrators. Administrators can serve as mentors, provide affirmation, and listen to students at meetings along with their other duties. Once superintendents have created the conditions that allow STEM integration projects to move forward as successfully as possible, they can step aside and let principals and educators develop curriculum (Yarbrough, 2016).
Watson, Peters, and Williams-Duncan (2020) have created an extensive list for school administrators to consider when setting up STEM programs. Many of the bullets involve providing parents with more information about STEM careers, STEM programs, and STEM extracurricular events through open houses and advisory councils. Working with parents is crucial since they play “a substantial role in influencing the students’ interests, experiences, and perceptions in their pursuits of STEM careers” (Stipanovic & Woo, 2017, p. 192).
Models of STEM Programs
One successful program recruited teachers from a Northeastern high school to identify students who needed extra motivation. Most, but not all, were URM. These students gathered on a college campus for six hours every other Saturday to do practical work on environmental and food justice issues. Interviews after the program suggested that students developed their political efficacy and helped with career goals (Kozan, et al., 2017). A similar program for students attending high school in Boston also uses a food justice curriculum. This program is specifically designed for low-to-middle-performing students of color, about half of who are women. The program focuses on what students eat themselves (a microsystem), the concept of food deserts (the interaction of two or more microsystems), and exosystems that exist outside the person who interacts with micro- or mesosystems—such as legislative considerations.
The creators of the program also tried to figure out ways to build on the cultural wealth of communities of color. For example, the Minnesota African American Heritage Museum has created a wall of fame featuring Black Minnesotans who made contributions to STEM, including Reatha Clark King, a chemist who worked behind the scenes in the Apollo 11 space mission (Science-centric, 2020). Those who run the Boston program also bring in community activists and STEM professionals, as well as provide time for current events. The success of the Boston program is shown by a 100 percent college attendance rate by those who take part (Madden, et al., 2017).
The Effectiveness of After-School Programs
After-school programs are also popular ways of attracting students into STEM. For twenty-six years, the Minnesota Renewable Energy Society (MRES) has run an annual solar boat regatta for middle and high school students, particularly “more diverse contestants and girls, who are underrepresented in science, technology, engineering and math careers” (Jeelani, 2018a). After participating in the program for two years, Sam Jackson has decided she now wants to be a mechanical or chemical engineer.
In Minneapolis, a city grant was created for Somali youth a 4-H program focused on STEM. In addition to teaching the scientific process, the program encourages teamwork and includes time working at the University of Minnesota (Roper, 2016).
The National Society of Black Engineers (NSBE) has also sponsored STEM summer camps since 2007. The three-week camp for kids in grades three through five includes lessons on engineering, programming, and noted African American engineers. NSBE students serve as mentors. The Summer Engineering Experience for Kids (SEEK) wants to see twenty-five thousand Black engineers graduate annually by 2025 (Jeelani, 2018b).
Utilizing Robotics
Another popular way to entice youth into STEM is through robotics competitions. FIRST Robotics, the national organizing body, sponsors the Junior Lego League for elementary students, FIRST Tech Challenge (FTC), for middle school students, and FIRST Robotics Competition for grades 9–12. The FTC program went from 36 teams in 2012 to 106 teams two years later. The program at Lakeville North High School in Minnesota, the first state to hold a state-wide competition in 2012, meets in the basements of team members’ parents. Working engineers serve as mentors (Adler, 2015).
In general, these programs reflect the advice given by Collins (2018), who suggests that students need to see mentors who look like them and need to have their own interests (such as space exploration) mirrored in activities. Parents and their core values also must play a role in the creation of successful programs. Hernandez et al. (2013) also suggest that engagement in practical research both within and outside class “buffered underrepresented students against an increase in performance-avoidance goals” (p. 89).
Establishing Programs at the College Level
Given that the pipeline for young black women in STEM leaks the most in college (Alexander & Hermann, 2016; Perez-Felkner, 2019), many programs have been established at the college level for women in STEM. Almost all attributes of those programs could work at the high school level, particularly since “barriers to the educational attainment of African American women in STEM fields begin during elementary and secondary school” (Perna, et al., 2009, p. 17). For example, small class sizes can encourage more interaction with faculty. Charleston, Charleston, and Jackson (2014) and Smith, Geddis, and Dumas (2021) also tout mentoring programs, career advice, and the creation of peer groups. Through previously mentioned after-school, summer enrichment, and weekend programs, a supportive STEM culture can be cultivated. In addition, faculty need to think in terms of introductory classes as providing “gateways” rather than as a means to “weed out” (Perna, et al., 2009, p. 13).
Extracurricular Programs in College
Extracurricular programs for college students might also be adapted for high school students or open to them. “Rewrite the Code Black Wings,” a group of 1,300 Black female technology students from 215 universities takes part in the “Black Wings Hacks” hackathon. The teams are encouraged to “work on something that is meaningful to them, from financial accessibility to environmental sustainability” in order to gain confidence in their tech skills, according to Governess Simpson, one of the organizers of the 2022 event (St. Anthony, 2022).
Simpson remembers the first couple semesters of engineering classes as tough for her and, as the only Black person in many of her classes, she suffered from a lack of identity and confidence. To fight her poor mental health, she sought counseling and participated in “Rewriting the Code” seminars on “imposter syndrome,” a close psychological relative of stereotype threat—anxiety produced when a person fears her actions will be seen through the lens of a negative stereotype (Shapiro & Williams, 2011, 175).
In a presentation, the president of the University of Maryland, Baltimore County, F.A. Hrabowski (2018), listed several recommendations undertaken by his college to promote African Americans in STEM, including study groups, student research, tutors, advising, mentors, community service, involvement of students’ parents, and opportunities for social engagement among students.
Understanding Self-Efficacy
Another important factor in STEM perseverance is self-efficacy (Perna, et al., 2009). Beri and Stanikzai (2018) define self-efficacy as “one’s belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific situations or accomplish a task” (p. 213). Several researchers have found that despite their proven equality in math and science, girls have less self-efficacy than boys (Alam & Tapia, 2020; Eddy & Brownell, 2016; Jugović, 2017; Riegle-Crumb & King, 2010), helping to explain why fewer girls than boys aspire to STEM careers (Alam & Tapia, 2020; Cheryan, 2011).
Besides positive learning experiences (Collins, 2018; Mau et al., 2020), Stout, Dasgupta, Hunsinger, and McManus (2011) reported that “exposure to female STEM experts promoted positive implicit attitudes and stronger implicit identification with STEM…, greater self-efficacy in STEM…, and more effort on STEM tests” (p. 255). Farinde and Lewis (2012) also suggest acknowledging the contributions of African American women to encourage their involvement in STEM.
How Teachers Can Help
In addition to raising self-efficacy, Farinde and Lewis (2012) suggest that teachers can help by holding young black females to high standards, encouraging them to pursue STEM careers, asking them higher-level questions, and providing hands-on applications. Although listing ways to help African American boys in STEM, Brown, Mangram, Sun, Cross, and Raabe (2016) could just as easily be writing about African American girls when they suggested that teachers wear their college sweatshirts to model the expectation of attending college. The teachers also posted students of the month to help with academic STEM scientific identity and posted philosophical objectives from African nations to help cement racial identity.
Finally, McGee and Bentley (2017) remind STEM enthusiasts that financial rewards are not the only enticement for STEM students. From interviews of thirty-eight Black and Lantinx STEM undergraduates, the authors stress that a focus on a STEM career’s ability to help others is also important in attracting URM.
Critiques of Specialized STEM Programs
Heyback and Pickup (2017) posit that programs to encourage women in STEM “uncritically positions STEM as a commodity to be equitably distributed across gender lines, rather than a domain of knowledge impacted by the experiences of gender itself ” (p. 614). Rather than looking at women/girls as lacking something (deficit model), they have to be viewed for what they can offer. The authors suggest that scientific enterprise has been influenced by gendered metaphors so the approach to science itself needs to change. For example, such values as “objectivity” need to be reevaluated. For example, the authors put forward Nobel Prize-winning geneticist Barbara McClintock who challenged the central dogmas of genetics by relying upon her intuition and “listening to the material,” thus breaking from the “traditional masculinist assumptions of science” (p. 624).
Hytten and Stemhagen (2020) fear that an emphasis on STEM from Sputnik, through the Cold War, and A Nation at Risk (1983) has not provided broad economic growth (only wealth for those at the top) while switching the focus of schools away from “critical literacy, an understanding of history, and the cultivation of democratic habits, such as concern for the rights and welfare of others” (p. 18).
This focus on STEM, according to Kahlenberg and Janey (2016), “significantly contributed to the election of a US president who blatantly disregards evidence, facts, and scientific consensus, and who, through his actions, mocks long-cherished ideals such as freedom of religion and press, rule of law, and the importance of an independent judiciary” (cited in Hytten & Stemhagen, 2020, pp. 19–20). Michael and Young (2005) counter that perspective by saying that any school hoping to call itself “inspired” will promote a sense of inclusivity, equity, and global citizenship.”
Equalizing STEM High Schools
Picking up the economic argument where Hytten and Stemhagen (2020) left off, Salzman (2013) insists that there is no STEM shortage, with the nation graduating every year more than two times as many STEM students each as can find jobs in STEM fields. Although not focusing on the dropout rate of young black women in STEM studies and using old data, Salzman points out that in 2009 more students transferred into STEM majors than out.
Looking at high schools, Rogers-Chapman (2014) found that African Americans are disproportionately represented in selective STEM high schools (p. 716) while in general STEM high schools tend to have fewer students from disadvantaged backgrounds than their district averages. With a glass-half-full/half-empty viewpoint, the author suggests that more STEM high schools need to be created in order to equalize access while at the same time stating that policies to attract URM into STEM schools are “achieving” their goals (p. 731).
Although working to make the University of Maryland, Balti‐ more County the leading predominately White baccalaureate-origin university for Black STEM Ph.D. in the United States, Maton and Hrabowski (2004) understand that STEM programs focused on African Americans can cause resentment among non-program STEM students and non-STEM students on the campus. While they are still dedicated to helping URM succeed in STEM, they also plan to continue to monitor any backlash.
Conclusion
At the present time, it is abundantly clear that any concerns about STEM-focused programs, particularly those that concentrate on social justice issues, are far outweighed by their positive outcomes. Students who participate gain STEM self-efficacy and learn to be part of the solution, not just part of the problem. Obviously, progress must also be made in college programs and workplaces that continue to embrace “the masculine culture of science” (Settles et al., 2016, p. P. 488), but focusing on the needs of young black girls early on is necessary, particularly since Black boys with a high science identity are equally likely to aspire toward a science career as their White male peers (Bodnar et al., 2020).
As a social justice issue, fixing the STEM gap should be at or near the top of superintendents’ to-do lists. In general, programs that focus on Black girls will produce results across various demographics. However, bringing more women of color into STEM will benefit them the most. Any programs to lessen the STEM gap will also help the country retain its edge in technology, thus ensuring a comfortable life for its citizens.
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About the Author
SHAWN JOSEPH, ED.D.
Educator, Consultant, Author
Dr. Shawn Joseph’s passion for equity and social justice has led him to serve in a number of positions in the world of education. He has been an English teacher, reading specialist, school administrator, central office administrator, and superintendent in Delaware (Seaford School District) and Tennessee (Metro Nashville Public Schools). He served on the faculty of Fordham University in the Department of Educational Leadership, Administration, and Policy during the 2019–2020 school year and is currently co-director of the AASA/Howard Urban Superintendent Academy and Assistant Professor of Educational Leadership, Administration, and Policy Studies at Howard University.
In 2009, Dr. Joseph was honored by his peers as the National Association of Secondary School Administrator’s Met-Life Middle School Principal of the Year for the State of Mary‐ land. In 2010, Dr. Joseph was the recipient of the American Educational Research Association’s Outstanding Dissertation Award in the area of Educational Leadership. Additionally, in 2019 and 2020, Dr. Joseph was selected as the Person of the Year by the Tribune Newspaper in Nashville. His first book, The Principal’s Guide to the First 100 Days of the School Year: Creating Instructional Momentum, offers insight into the complexity of the principalship and suggests strategies for focusing on increasing student achievement. In 2019, he published the book Finding the Joseph Within, a memoir that tells the account of his professional journey and how faith and perseverance unleashed favor upon his life.
Dr. Joseph earned a doctoral degree in educational administration and policy studies from The George Washington University and a master’s degree from The Johns Hopkins University. His bachelor’s degree is from Lincoln University, Pennsylvania, America’s oldest Historically Black College.
Dr. Joseph’s research interests include studying the leadership experiences of Black male superintendents, superintendent preparation programs, and how minority leaders lead for equity.
